Toxicology

Part of a series on
Toxicology and poison
Toxicology (Forensic) · Toxinology · History of poison
Concepts
Poison · Venom · Toxicant (Toxin) · Acceptable daily intake · Acute toxicity · Bioaccumulation · Biomagnification · Fixed Dose Procedure · LD50 · Lethal dose · Toxic capacity · Toxicity Class
Treatments
Antidote · Gastric lavage · Whole bowel irrigation · Activated carbon · Cathartic · Hemodialysis · Chelation therapy · Hemoperfusion
Incidents
Bradford · Minamata · Niigata Alexander Litvinenko · Bhopal · 2007 pet food recalls · Seveso disaster · List of poisonings
Related topics
Hazard symbol · Carcinogen Mutagen · List of Extremely Hazardous Substances · Biological warfare · Food safety This box: view • talk • edit

Toxicology (from the Greek words toxicos and logos) is the study of the adverse effects of chemicals on living organisms.^[1] It is the study of symptoms, mechanisms, treatments and detection of poisoning, especially the poisoning of people.

Contents

[hide]

• 1 History
• 2 Relationship between dose and toxicity
• 3 Toxicity of metabolites
• 4 Subdisciplines of toxicology
• 5 Chemical toxicology
• 6 See also
• 7 References
• 8 Further reading
• 9 External links

Radiology

Meeting protocol of the Würzburg Physical-Medical Society in the 1895 volume.

Examination of an X-ray exposure, 2007

Radiology is the branch or speciality of medicine that deals with the study and application of imaging technology like x-ray and radiation to diagnosing and treating disease.

Originally it was the aspect of medical science dealing with the use of electromagnetic energy emitted by X-ray machines or other such radiation devices for the purpose of obtaining visual information as part of medical imaging. Radiology that involves use of x-ray is called roentgenology. The modern day radiological imaging is no longer limited to the use of x-rays, and now includes technology-intensive imaging with high frequency sound waves, magnetic fields, and radioactivity.

Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen (English spelling Roentgen) first discovered x-radiation on 8 November 1895 at the Physical Institute of Würzburg University.^[1] He named the radiation he had discovered "X-radiation". This term is still in use today in the Anglo-American region. His work was first published in a meeting protocol of the Würzburg Physical-Medical Society in the 1895 volume; the article was submitted by W.C. Röntgen on 28 December 1895. Roentgen received the first Nobel Prize for Physics for the discovery of X-rays in 1901.

Today, following extensive training, radiologists direct an array of imaging technologies (such as ultrasound, computed tomography (CT) Computer Assisted Tomography, nuclear medicine, Positron Emission Tomography (PET) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)) to diagnose or treat disease. Interventional radiology is the performance of (usually minimally invasive) medical procedures with the guidance of imaging technologies. The acquisition of medical imaging is usually carried out by the radiographer or radiologic technologist. Outside of the medical field, radiology also encompasses the examination of the inner structure of objects using X-rays or other penetrating radiation.

Contents

[hide]

• 1 Acquisition of radiological images
  • 1.1 Projection (plain) radiography
  • 1.2 Fluoroscopy
  • 1.3 CT scanning
  • 1.4 Ultrasound
  • 1.5 MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)
  • 1.6 Nuclear Medicine
• 2 Teleradiology
• 3 Radiologist training
  • 3.1 United States
  • 3.2 Germany
• 4 References
• 5 See also
• 6 External links

Psychiatry

An MRI scan of the brain: many mental disorders are thought to be associated with neurobiological abnormalities ^[1]

The word psyche comes from the ancient Greek for soul or butterfly.^[2] The fluttering elusive insect is in the coat of arms of Britain's Royal College of Psychiatrists^[3]

Psychiatry is a medical specialty devoted to the treatment, study and prevention of mental disorders. The term was first coined by the German physician Johann Christian Reil in 1808.

Psychiatric assessment typically involves a mental status examination and the taking of a case history; and psychological tests may be conducted. Physical examinations may be carried out and on occasion neuroimages or other neurophysiological measurements taken. Diagnostic procedures vary. Official criteria are listed in manuals, the most widely available being the ICD from the World Health Organization and the DSM from the American Psychiatric Association.

Psychiatric medication is currently a central option, often in conjunction with one of the many varieties of psychotherapy. In extreme instances, currently less favored techniques such as electroconvulsive therapy may be used. Treatment is available on an inpatient or outpatient basis. With the necessary legal sanction, this may be applied involuntarily. Research and the clinical application of psychiatry are conducted on an interdisciplinary basis involving various sub-specialties and theoretical approaches. ^[4]

In the West, treatment of emotional and cognitive disfunction may be said to have its origins at least as far back as the 5th century BC. The first hospices for the mentally ill appeared in the Middle Ages. The early 19th century saw the development of psychiatry as a recognized field. Mental health institutions came to utilize more elaborate and, over the course of time, more humane treatment methods. The 19th century saw a huge increase in the number of patients.

The 20th century saw an upsurge of biological understanding of mental disorders, as well as the introduction of more systematic disease classification, and the advent of sophisticated psychiatric medication. An anti-psychiatry movement, hostile to most of the fundamental assumptions and practices of the discipline, emerged in the 1960s. A shift in emphasis in several Western societies led to the dismantling of state psychiatric hospitals in favor of more community-based treatment.

Contents

[hide]

• 1 Theory and focus
  • 1.1 Scope of practice
  • 1.2 Ethics
  • 1.3 Subspecialties
  • 1.4 Approaches
• 2 History
  • 2.1 Ancient times
  • 2.2 Middle Ages
  • 2.3 Early modern period
  • 2.4 19th century
  • 2.5 20th century
    • 2.5.1 Disease classification and rebirth of biological psychiatry
    • 2.5.2 Anti-psychiatry and deinstitutionalization
    • 2.5.3 Transinstitutionalization and the aftermath
• 3 Industry and academia
  • 3.1 Practitioners
  • 3.2 Research
  • 3.3 Clinical application
    • 3.3.1 Diagnostic systems
      • 3.3.1.1 Diagnostic manuals
    • 3.3.2 Treatment settings
      • 3.3.2.1 General considerations
      • 3.3.2.2 Inpatient treatment
      • 3.3.2.3 Outpatient treatment
• 4 See also
• 5 References
  • 5.1 Notes
  • 5.2 General references
• 6 External links

Physiology

Physiology (from Greek φύσις, physis, "nature, origin"; and -λογία, -logia) is the study of the mechanical, physical, and biochemical functions of living organisms. Physiology has traditionally been divided between plant physiology and animal and all living things physiology but the principles of physiology are universal, no matter what particular organism is being studied. For example, what is learned about the physiology of yeast cells may also apply to human cells.

The field of animal physiology extends the tools and methods of human physiology to non-human animal species. Plant physiology also borrows techniques from both fields. Its scope of subjects is at least as diverse as the tree of life itself. Due to this diversity of subjects, research in animal physiology tends to concentrate on understanding how physiological traits changed throughout the evolutionary history of animals. Other major branches of scientific study that have grown out of physiology research include biochemistry, biophysics, paleobiology, biomechanics, and pharmacology.

Contents

[hide]

• 1 History
• 2 See also
• 3 References
• 4 External links

Physical therapy

Physical therapy Classification and external resources
This physical therapist is assisting two children with polio holding on to a rail whilst they exercise their lower limbs.

Physical therapy (physiotherapy in many English speaking countries) is a health care profession which provides services to individuals and populations to develop, maintain and restore maximum movement and functional ability throughout life. This includes providing services in circumstances where movement and function are threatened by aging, injury, disease or environmental factors. Functional movement is a central element in what it means to be healthy.

Physical therapy is concerned with identifying and maximizing quality of life and movement potential within the spheres of promotion, prevention, treatment/intervention, habilitation and rehabilitation. This encompasses physical, psychological, emotional, and social well being. It involves the interaction between physical therapist (PT), patients/clients, other health professionals, families, care givers, and communities in a process where movement potential is assessed and goals are agreed upon, using knowledge and skills unique to physical therapists.^[1] Physical therapy is performed by either a physical therapist (PT) or an assistant (PTA) acting under their direction.^[2]

PTs utilize an individual's history and physical examination to arrive at a diagnosis and establish a management plan, and when necessary, incorporate the results of laboratory and imaging studies. Electrodiagnostic testing (e.g. electromyograms and nerve conduction velocity testing) may also be of assistance.^[3]

Physical therapy has many specialties including cardiopulmonary, geriatrics, neurologic, orthopaedic and pediatrics to name some of the more common areas. PTs practice in many settings, such as outpatient clinics or offices, inpatient rehabilitation facilities, extended care facilities, private homes, education and research centers, schools, hospices, industrial workplaces or other occupational environments, fitness centers and sports training facilities.^[4]

Educational qualifications vary greatly by country. The span of education ranges from some countries having little formal education to others requiring masters and doctoral degrees.

Contents

[hide]

• 1 History
• 2 Specialty areas
  • 2.1 Cardiopulmonary
  • 2.2 Geriatric
  • 2.3 Neurological
  • 2.4 Orthopaedic
  • 2.5 Pediatric
  • 2.6 Integumentary
• 3 Education
• 4 See also
• 5 References

Pharmacology

A variety of topics involved with pharmacology, including neuropharmacology, renal pharmacology, human metabolism, intracellular metabolism, and intracellular regulation.

Pharmacology (from Greek φάρμακον, pharmakon, "drug"; and -λογία, -logia) is the study of drug action.^[1] More specifically it is the study of the interactions that occur between a living organism and exogenous chemicals that alter normal biochemical function. If substances have medicinal properties, they are considered pharmaceuticals. The field encompasses drug composition and properties, interactions, toxicology, therapy, and medical applications and antipathogenic capabilities. Pharmacology is not synonymous with pharmacy, which is the name used for a profession, though in common usage the two terms are confused at times. Pharmacology deals with how drugs interact within biological systems to affect function. It is the study of drugs, of the body's reaction to drugs, the sources of drugs, their nature, and their properties. In contrast, pharmacy is a medical science concerned with the safe and effective use of medicines.

The origins of clinical pharmacology date back to the Middle Ages in Avicenna's The Canon of Medicine, Peter of Spain's Commentary on Isaac, and John of St Amand's Commentary on the Antedotary of Nicholas.^[2] Pharmacology as a scientific discipline did not further advance until the mid-19th century amid the great biomedical resurgence of that period.^[3] Before the second half of the nineteenth century, the remarkable potency and specificity of the actions of drugs such as morphine, quinine and digitalis were explained vaguely and with reference to extraordinary chemical powers and affinities to certain organs or tissues.^[4] The first pharmacology department was set up by Buchheim in 1847, in recognition of the need to understand how therapeutic drugs and poisons produced their effects.^[3]

Early pharmacologists focused on natural substances, mainly plant extracts. Pharmacology developed in the 19th century as a biomedical science that applied the principles of scientific experimentation to therapeutic contexts.^[5]

Contents

[hide]

• 1 Divisions
• 2 Scientific background
• 3 Medicine development and safety testing
• 4 Drug legislation and safety
• 5 Education
• 6 See also
• 7 Footnotes
• 8 External links

Pediatrics

.

Pediatric polysomnography patient
Children's Hospital (Saint Louis), 2006

Pediatrics (or paediatrics) is the branch of medicine that deals with the medical care of infants, children, and adolescents. The upper age limit ranges from age 14 to 18, depending on the country.

A medical practitioner who specializes in this area is known as a pediatrician (also spelled paediatrician).

The word pediatrics and its cognates mean healer of children; they derive from two Greek words: παῖς (pais = child) and ἰατρός (iatros = doctor or healer).

Contents

[hide]

• 1 Differences between adult and pediatric medicine
• 2 History of pediatrics
• 3 Training of pediatricians
• 4 Pediatric organizations
• 5 Social role of pediatric specialists
• 6 See also
• 7 References
• 8 Further reading
• 9 External links

Pathophysiology

Pathophysiology sample values

BMP/ELECTROLYTES:
Na+=140	Cl-=100	BUN=20	/
			Glu=150
K+=4	CO2=22	PCr=1.0	\
ARTERIAL BLOOD GAS:
HCO3-=24	paCO2=40	paO2=95	pH=7.40
ALVEOLAR GAS:
	pACO2=36	pAO2=105	A-a g=10
OTHER:
Ca=9.5	PO4=1	Mg2+=2.0
CK=55	BE=-0.36	AG=16
SERUM OSMOLARITY/RENAL:
PMO = 300	PCO=295	POG=5	BUN:Cr=20
URINALYSIS:
UNa+=80	UCl-=100	UAG=5	FENa=0.95
UK+=25	USG=1.01	UCr=60	UO=800
PROTEIN/GI/LIVER FUNCTION TESTS:
LDH=100	TP=7.6	AST=25	TBIL=0.7
ALP=71	Alb=4.0	ALT=40	BC=0.5
		AST/ALT=0.6	BU=0.2
AF alb=3.0	SAAG=1.0		SOG=60
CSF:
CSF alb=30	CSF glu=60	CSF/S alb=7.5	CSF/S glu=0.4

Pathophysiology is the study of the changes of normal mechanical, physical, and biochemical functions, either caused by a disease, or resulting from an abnormal syndrome.^[1] More formally, it is the branch of medicine which deals with any disturbances of body functions, caused by disease or prodromal symptoms.

An alternate definition is "the study of the biological and physical manifestations of disease as they correlate with the underlying abnormalities and physiological disturbances."^[2]

The study of pathology and the study of pathophysiology often involves substantial overlap in diseases and processes, but pathology emphasizes direct observations, while pathophysiology emphasizes quantifiable measurements.

==Related fields==the intersection of two older, related disciplines: (normal) physiology and pathology.

• Physiology is the study of normal, healthy bodily function (as opposed to anatomy, which is the study of normal structure). When something disrupts normal physiological processes, it enters the realm of pathophysiology.

• Pathology, broadly speaking, is the "study of the nature and cause of disease."^[3] or the results of disease in the body.

Pathophysiology looks at the detailed malfunctioning that comes from or - alternately - causes disease.

One caution in this approach is that "healthy" structure and function is not precisely the same in any two individuals.

Contents

[hide]

• 1 Examples
• 2 Uses
• 3 See also
• 4 References
• 5 External links

Pathology

A renal cell carcinoma (chromophobe type) viewed on a hematoxylin & eosin stained slide

Bacteriology: Agar plate with bacterial colonies.

This mastectomy specimen contains an infiltrating ductal carcinoma of the breast. A pathologist will use immunohistochemistry and fluorescent in-situ hybridization to detect markers which determine the optimal chemotherapy regimen for this patient.

Pathology (from Greek πάθος, pathos, "fate, harm"; and -λογία, -logia) is the study and diagnosis of disease through examination of organs, tissues, bodily fluids and whole bodies (Autopsy). The term also encompasses the related scientific study of disease processes, called General pathology.

Medical pathology is divided in two main branches, Anatomical pathology and Clinical pathology. Veterinary pathology is concerned with animal disease whereas Phytopathology is the study of plant diseases.

Contents

[hide]

• 1 History of pathology
• 2 General pathology
• 3 Pathology as a medical specialty
  • 3.1 Anatomical pathology
  • 3.2 Clinical pathology
• 4 Forensic pathology
• 5 Veterinary pathology
• 6 Plant pathology
• 7 See also
• 8 References
• 9 External links

Ophthalmology

A phoropter in use.

Slit lamp examination of eyes in an Ophthalmology Clinic

Ophthalmology is the branch of medicine which deals with the diseases and surgery of the visual pathways, including the eye, brain, and areas surrounding the eye, such as the lacrimal system and eyelids. By convention the term ophthalmologist is more restricted and implies a medically trained surgical specialist. Since ophthalmologists perform operations on eyes, they are generally categorized as surgeons.

The word ophthalmology comes from the Greek roots ophthalmos meaning eye and logos meaning word, thought or discourse; ophthalmology literally means "the science of eyes". As a discipline, it applies to animal eyes also, since the differences from human practice are surprisingly minor and are related mainly to differences in anatomy or prevalence, not differences in disease processes. However, veterinary medicine is regulated separately in many countries and states/provinces resulting in few ophthalmologists treating both humans and animals.

Contents

[hide]

• 1 History
  • 1.1 Sushruta
  • 1.2 Pre-Hippocrates (pre-Ahad Fazalat)
  • 1.3 Alexandrian studies
  • 1.4 Rufus
  • 1.5 After Galen
  • 1.6 Muslim ophthalmology
  • 1.7 Seventeenth and eighteenth century
  • 1.8 Ophthalmic surgery in Great Britain
• 2 Professional requirements
  • 2.1 Australia and New Zealand
  • 2.2 Canada
  • 2.3 Finland
  • 2.4 Germany
  • 2.5 India
  • 2.6 Pakistan
  • 2.7 United Kingdom and Republic of Ireland
  • 2.8 United States
• 3 Sub-specialities
• 4 Ophthalmic surgery
• 5 Notable ophthalmologists
  • 5.1 Pre-18th century
  • 5.2 18th-19th century
  • 5.3 20th-21st century
• 6 See also
• 7 External links
• 8 References

Neurology

Neurology (from Greek νεῦρον, neuron, "nerve"; and -λογία, -logia) is a medical specialty dealing with disorders of the nervous system. Specifically, it deals with the diagnosis and treatment of all categories of disease involving the central, peripheral, and autonomic nervous systems, including their coverings, blood vessels, and all effector tissue, such as muscle.^[1] The corresponding surgical specialty is neurosurgery. A neurologist is a physician (not a surgeon) who specializes in neurology, and is trained to investigate, or diagnose and treat, neurological disorders. Pediatric neurologists treat neurological disease in children. Neurologists may also be involved in clinical research, clinical trials, as well as basic research and translational research. In the United Kingdom, contributions to the field of neurology stem from various professions; saliently, several biomedical research scientists are choosing to specialize in the technical/laboratory aspects of one of neurology's subdisciplines.

Contents

[hide]

• 1 Field of work
• 2 Educational requirements
• 3 Testing examinations
• 4 Clinical tasks
  • 4.1 General caseload
  • 4.2 Overlapping areas
  • 4.3 Relationship to clinical neurophysiology
  • 4.4 Overlap with psychiatry
• 5 References
• 6 External links

Internal medicine

Internal Medicine is the medical specialty concerned with the diagnosis, management and nonsurgical treatment of unusual or serious diseases. (According to some sources, an emphasis on internal structures is implied.^[1]) In North America, specialists in internal medicine are commonly called, "Internists." Elsewhere, especially in Commonwealth nations, such specialists are often called Physicians. Because their patients are often seriously ill or require complex investigations, internists do much of their work in hospitals. Formerly, many internists were not subspecialized and would see any complex nonsurgical problem; this style of practice has become much less common.

In modern urban practice, most internists are subspecialists: that is, they generally limit their medical practice to problems of one organ system or to one particular area of medical knowledge. For example, gastroenterologists and nephrologists specialize respectively in diseases of the gut and the kidneys.

Internists have a lengthy clinical and scientific training in their areas of medical interest and have special expertise in the use of prescription drugs or other medical therapies (as opposed to surgery). While the name "Internal Medicine" may suggest that internists only treat problems of internal organs, this is not the case. Internists are trained to treat patients as whole people, not as mere organ systems.

Contents

[hide]

• 1 Definition of an internist
• 2 Education and training of internists
• 3 Subspecialties of internal medicine
• 4 Medical diagnosis and treatment
• 5 See also
• 6 References
• 7 External links

Immunology

Immunology is a broad branch of biomedical science that covers the study of all aspects of the immune system in all organisms. It deals with, among other things, the physiological functioning of the immune system in states of both health and disease; malfunctions of the immune system in immunological disorders (autoimmune diseases, hypersensitivities, immune deficiency, transplant rejection); the physical, chemical and physiological characteristics of the components of the immune system in vitro, in situ, and in vivo. Immunology has applications in several disciplines of science, and as such is further divided.

Immunology is that branch of biomedical science,which deals with the study of normal and malfunctions of immune system in all organisms.

Contents

[hide]

• 1 Histological examination of the immune system
• 2 Classical immunology
• 3 Clinical immunology
• 4 Immunotherapy
• 5 Diagnostic immunology
• 6 Evolutionary immunology
• 7 See also
• 8 References
• 9 External links

Dermatology

Dermatology is the branch of medicine dealing with the skin and its diseases^[1], a unique specialty with both medical and surgical aspects. ^[2][3][4] The name of this specialty originated in the form of the (semantically wrong) words dermologie (in French, 1764) and, a little later, dermatologia (in Latin, 1777).^[5] A dermatologist takes care of diseases, in the widest sense, and some cosmetic problems of the skin, scalp, hair, and nails.^[6]

Contents

[hide]

• 1 History
• 2 Training
• 3 Subspecialties
  • 3.1 Cosmetic dermatology
  • 3.2 Dermatopathology
  • 3.3 Immunodermatology
  • 3.4 Mohs Surgery
  • 3.5 Pediatric Dermatology
  • 3.6 Teledermatology
• 4 Therapies
• 5 See also
• 6 References
• 7 External links

Anatomy

Human heart and lungs, from an older edition of Gray's Anatomy.

Anatomy (from the Greek ἀνατομία anatomia, from ἀνατέμνειν ana: separate, apart from, and temnein, to cut up, cut open) is a branch of biology that is the consideration of the structure of living things. It is a general term that includes human anatomy, animal anatomy (zootomy) and plant anatomy (phytotomy). In some of its facets anatomy is closely related to embryology, comparative anatomy and comparative embryology,^[1] through common roots in evolution.

Anatomy is subdivided into gross anatomy (or macroscopic anatomy) and microscopic anatomy.^[1] Gross anatomy (also called topographical anatomy, regional anatomy, or anthropotomy) is the study of anatomical structures that can be seen by unaided vision.^[1] Microscopic anatomy is the study of minute anatomical structures assisted with microscopes, which includes histology (the study of the organization of tissues),^[1] and cytology (the study of cells).

The history of anatomy has been characterized, over time, by a continually developing understanding of the functions of organs and structures in the body. Methods have also advanced dramatically, advancing from examination of animals through dissection of cadavers (dead human bodies) to technologically complex techniques developed in the 20th century.

Anatomy should not be confused with anatomical pathology (also called morbid anatomy or histopathology), which is the study of the gross and microscopic appearances of diseased organs.

Contents

[hide]

• 1 Superficial anatomy
• 2 Human anatomy
• 3 Other branches
• 4 See also
• 5 References
• 6 External links